A collection of the archive

The Non-Christian Witnesses to the Early Church

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Tacitus, Pliny, Josephus, Suetonius, Celsus, Porphyry, and the magistrates who tried Christians and wrote it down — everyone outside the church whose testimony the church itself preserved, quoted, or answered.

157 figures, AD 1 to 400

These are the sources that matter most to anyone asking whether the early Christians can be corroborated from outside their own writings. Some are hostile, some administrative, some merely puzzled; several survive only because a Christian writer quoted them in order to argue back.

Christian writers who reported on non-Christians are not here. The test is the witness’s own allegiance, not the subject of the passage.

Which non-Christian sources mention the early Christians?

  1. 1 Herod the Great c. 73 BC – March/April 4 BC King of Judaea (37–4 BC) · Builder of the Temple
  2. 2 Caesar Augustus 63 BC – AD 14 First Roman Emperor (27 BC – AD 14)
  3. 3 Herod Archelaus 23 BC – c. AD 18 (deposed AD 6) Ethnarch of Judaea, Samaria and Idumaea (4 BC – AD 6)
  4. 4 Quirinius (Cyrenius) c. 51 BC – AD 21 Legate of Syria · Named by Luke for the census
  5. 5 Lysanias of Abilene fl. AD 29 (dates otherwise unrecorded) Tetrarch of Abilene
  6. 6 Judas Iscariot d. AD 30 Apostle who betrayed the Lord
  7. 7 Barabbas fl. AD 30 (released; life otherwise unrecorded) Insurrectionist · Released in place of Christ
  8. 8 Pontius Pilate's Wife (Procula) fl. AD 33 (death unrecorded) Roman noblewoman · Warned Pilate at the trial
  9. 9 Philip the Tetrarch c. 20 BC – AD 34 Tetrarch of Ituraea and Trachonitis (4 BC – AD 34)
  10. 10 Joseph Caiaphas deposed AD 36, d. thereafter High priest at the trial of Jesus
  11. 11 Emperor Tiberius 42 BC – AD 37 Roman Emperor · Reigning at the Crucifixion
  12. 12 Pontius Pilate recalled AD 36/37; d. c. 37+ (trad. suicide) Prefect of Judaea · Judge of Jesus
  13. 13 Herod Antipas exiled AD 39, d. thereafter Tetrarch of Galilee · Executioner of the Baptist
  14. 14 Herodias c. 15 BC – after AD 39 (exiled to Gaul) Wife of Herod Antipas · Procured the death of the Baptist
  15. 15 Annas (Ananus I) d. c. 40 High priest emeritus · Head of the priestly dynasty
  16. 16 Herod Agrippa I d. AD 44 King of Judaea · Persecutor of the apostles
  17. 17 Elymas (Bar-Jesus) fl. AD 47 (death unrecorded) Magus at the court of Cyprus
  18. 18 Philo of Alexandria c. 20 BC – c. AD 50 Jewish philosopher · Witness of the Alexandrian community
  19. 19 Gamaliel the Elder d. c. 52 Pharisee · Doctor of the law · Teacher of Paul
  20. 20 Emperor Claudius d. AD 54 Roman Emperor (41–54)
  21. 21 Demetrius the Silversmith fl. c. 55 (death unrecorded) Guild-master of the Artemis trade
  22. 22 Tertullus fl. AD 58 Advocate · Prosecutor of Paul before Felix
  23. 23 Claudius Lysias fl. AD 57–59 Tribune of the cohort at Jerusalem
  24. 24 Antonius Felix recalled c. AD 59/60, d. thereafter Procurator of Judaea · Paul’s first Roman judge
  25. 25 Porcius Festus d. AD 62 (in office) Procurator of Judaea
  26. 26 Salome, daughter of Herodias c. AD 14 – c. AD 62 (dates uncertain) Herodian princess · Danced before Herod Antipas
  27. 27 Gallio (Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus) d. c. 65 Proconsul of Achaia · Brother of Seneca
  28. 28 Helen of Tyre fl. c. AD 40–60 (death unrecorded) Companion of Simon Magus · The Simonians' 'First Thought'
  29. 29 Seneca the Younger c. 4 BC – AD 65 (forced suicide) Stoic philosopher · Tutor of Nero · Brother of Gallio
  30. 30 Simon Magus d. c. 65 (trad., at Rome) Samaritan magus · Archetype of heresy
  31. 31 Alexander the Coppersmith fl. c. 65 (death unrecorded) Opponent of Paul
  32. 32 Ananias son of Nedebaeus d. AD 66 (killed at the outbreak of the revolt) High Priest (c. AD 47–59) · Prosecutor of Paul
  33. 33 Ananus II (the Younger) d. AD 68 (killed in the revolt) High Priest · Convened the Sanhedrin against James
  34. 34 Emperor Nero d. AD 68 (suicide) Roman Emperor (54–68) · First imperial persecutor
  35. 35 Ofonius Tigellinus d. AD 69 (forced suicide) Praetorian Prefect of Nero · Instrument of the terror
  36. 36 Emperor Vespasian AD 9 – 79 Roman Emperor · Subduer of the Jews, no persecutor
  37. 37 Drusilla c. AD 38 – c. AD 79 Wife of the procurator Felix · Herodian princess
  38. 38 Bernice c. AD 28 – after AD 79 Herodian princess · Present at Paul’s hearing before Agrippa II
  39. 39 Herod Agrippa II d. c. 93 King · Last of the Herods · Paul’s royal auditor
  40. 40 Emperor Domitian d. AD 96 (assassinated) Roman Emperor (81–96) · Persecutor
  41. 41 Emperor Nerva d. AD 98 Roman Emperor (96–98)
  42. 42 Apollonius of Tyana d. c. AD 100 (death unrecorded) Neopythagorean sage · Pagan counter-Christ
  43. 43 Cerinthus fl. c. 90–100 Heresiarch of Asia
  44. 44 Flavius Josephus c. AD 37 – c. 100 Jewish historian · Witness to James, John the Baptist & Jesus
  45. 45 Menander of Samaria fl. c. 80–100 Samaritan magus · Successor of Simon
  46. 46 Justus of Tiberias fl. late 1st century (death unrecorded) Jewish historian · Rival of Josephus
  47. 47 Pliny the Younger c. 61 – c. 113 Governor of Bithynia · Correspondent of Trajan on the Christians
  48. 48 Emperor Trajan d. AD 117 Roman Emperor (98–117)
  49. 49 Cornelius Tacitus c. AD 56 – c. 120 Roman historian · Witness of the Neronian persecution
  50. 50 Elchasai (Elxai) fl. c. AD 100–120 (quasi-legendary) Eponym of the Elkesaite baptizing sect
  51. 51 Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus c. AD 69 – after 122 Roman biographer · Witness of 'Chrestus' and Nero's punishments
  52. 52 Saturninus of Antioch fl. c. AD 120 (death unrecorded) Syrian Gnostic teacher · Disciple of Menander
  53. 53 Serennius Granianus proconsul of Asia c. AD 121–122 Proconsul of Asia · Questioner of the trials
  54. 54 Aquila the Translator fl. c. AD 130 (death unrecorded) Proselyte of Pontus · Translator of the Hexapla's Aquila column
  55. 55 Simon bar Kokhba d. AD 135 (fall of Betar) Leader of the Second Jewish Revolt · Persecutor of Christians
  56. 56 Emperor Hadrian d. AD 138 Roman Emperor (117–138)
  57. 57 Carpocrates of Alexandria fl. c. 130 (death unrecorded) Gnostic teacher of Alexandria
  58. 58 Trypho fl. c. 135 (death unrecorded) Jewish interlocutor of Justin's Dialogue
  59. 59 Basilides of Alexandria fl. c. 120 – 145 (death unrecorded) Gnostic teacher of Alexandria
  60. 60 Minucius Fundanus proconsul of Asia c. AD 122–123 Proconsul of Asia · Recipient of Hadrian's rescript
  61. 61 Epiphanes, son of Carpocrates d. c. 155 (aged seventeen) Gnostic author · Object of a posthumous cult
  62. 62 Herod the Irenarch fl. c. 155 (death unrecorded) Police magistrate (irenarch) at Smyrna
  63. 63 Isidore, son of Basilides fl. c. 150 (death unrecorded) Gnostic teacher · Heir of the Basilidean school
  64. 64 Statius Quadratus fl. c. 155 (Proconsul of Asia) Proconsul of Asia · Judge of Polycarp
  65. 65 Nicetes of Smyrna fl. c. 155 (death unrecorded) Civic notable of Smyrna · Father of the irenarch Herod
  66. 66 Diognetus fl. mid-2nd c. (death unrecorded) Pagan inquirer · Addressee of the Epistle to Diognetus
  67. 67 Justinus the Gnostic fl. 2nd century (death unrecorded) Author of the Book of Baruch
  68. 68 Marcellina the Carpocratian fl. c. AD 155–165 (death unrecorded) Carpocratian teacher at Rome
  69. 69 Philip the Asiarch Asiarch at Smyrna, AD 155 Asiarch of the province · President of the games
  70. 70 Quintus Lollius Urbicus urban prefect c. AD 146–160 Urban Prefect of Rome · Judge of Ptolemaeus and Lucius
  71. 71 Emperor Antoninus Pius d. AD 161 Roman Emperor (138–161)
  72. 72 Crescens the Cynic fl. c. 165 (death unrecorded) Cynic philosopher · Denouncer of Justin
  73. 73 Junius Rusticus fl. c. 165 (Prefect of Rome) Urban Prefect of Rome · Judge of Justin
  74. 74 Fronto of Cirta c. AD 100 – c. 167 Orator · Tutor of Marcus Aurelius · Accuser of the Christians
  75. 75 Emperor Lucius Verus AD 130 – 169 Roman co-Emperor (161–169)
  76. 76 Ptolemy the Valentinian fl. c. 150 – 170 (death unrecorded) Valentinian teacher · Author of the Letter to Flora
  77. 77 Monoimus the Arab fl. later 2nd century (death unrecorded) Gnostic speculator of the Monad
  78. 78 Celsus fl. c. 175 – 180 (True Word composed c. 178) Platonist philosopher · First systematic critic of Christianity
  79. 79 Emperor Marcus Aurelius d. AD 180 Roman Emperor (161–180) · Philosopher
  80. 80 Heracleon fl. c. AD 170 – c. 180 Valentinian exegete · First commentator on John
  81. 81 Marcus the Magician fl. c. AD 160–180 (death unrecorded) Valentinian wonder-worker · Founder of the Marcosians
  82. 82 Autolycus fl. c. 180 (death unrecorded) Learned pagan · Addressee of Theophilus
  83. 83 Perennis praetorian prefect AD 182–185; executed 185 Praetorian prefect · Judge of Apollonius
  84. 84 P. Vigellius Saturninus proconsul of Africa AD 180 Proconsul of Africa · Judge of the Scillitans · First persecutor of…
  85. 85 Theodotion the Translator fl. later 2nd century (death unrecorded) Reviser of the Greek Old Testament
  86. 86 Emperor Commodus AD 161 – 192 (assassinated) Roman Emperor (180–192)
  87. 87 Marcia d. AD 193 (executed under Didius Julianus's successor's purges) Concubine of Commodus · Protector of the confessors
  88. 88 Dinocrates d. c. AD 196, aged seven Brother of Perpetua · Child seen in her prison visions
  89. 89 Symmachus the Translator fl. late 2nd century (death unrecorded) Ebionite translator of the Greek Old Testament
  90. 90 Laetus fl. AD 202 (death unrecorded) Prefect of Egypt · Persecutor
  91. 91 Hilarianus, procurator of Africa acting governor AD 203 Procurator · Judge of Perpetua's company
  92. 92 Emperor Septimius Severus d. AD 211 Roman Emperor (193–211)
  93. 93 Galen of Pergamum AD 129 – c. 216 Physician & philosopher · Observer of the Christians
  94. 94 Alcibiades of Apamea fl. c. AD 220 (death unrecorded) Elchasaite missionary to Rome
  95. 95 Cassius Dio b. c. AD 155 Nicaea, Bithynia; d. c. 235 Roman senator · Twice consul · Historian
  96. 96 Julia Mamaea d. AD 235 (killed with her son) Augusta · Mother of Severus Alexander
  97. 97 Emperor Maximinus Thrax d. AD 238 Roman Emperor (235–238)
  98. 98 Emperor Philip the Arab d. AD 249 Roman Emperor (244–249) · Reputed Christian sympathizer
  99. 99 Severa fl. AD 244–249 (death unrecorded) Empress · Wife of Philip the Arab
  100. 100 Emperor Decius d. AD 251 Roman Emperor (249–251) · First universal persecutor
  101. 101 Heraclius fl. c. AD 250s (death unrecorded) Opponent of the readmission of the lapsed
  102. 102 Emperor Valerian d. after AD 260 (captive in Persia) Roman Emperor (253–260) · Persecutor
  103. 103 Aemilianus prefect AD 257; usurped and executed c. AD 262 Deputy-prefect of Egypt · Persecutor · Usurper
  104. 104 Emperor Gallienus d. AD 268 Roman Emperor (253–268) · Author of the first toleration
  105. 105 Zenobia of Palmyra captured 272; d. c. 274+ Queen of Palmyra · Protector of Paul of Samosata
  106. 106 Emperor Aurelian d. AD 275 Roman Emperor (270–275)
  107. 107 Mani c. 216 – c. 277 Founder of Manichaeism
  108. 108 Bos fl. 19 May 303 (death unrecorded) Servus publicus of the colony of Cirta
  109. 109 Edusius fl. 19 May 303 (death unrecorded) Public notary of Cirta
  110. 110 Junius fl. 19 May 303 (death unrecorded) Public notary of Cirta
  111. 111 Munatius Felix fl. 19 May 303 (death unrecorded) Flamen perpetuus and curator of the colony of Cirta
  112. 112 Anullinus, Proconsul of Africa fl. 304 (death unrecorded) Proconsul · Judge of Crispina
  113. 113 Dacian, Governor of Hispania fl. 304 (death unrecorded) Praeses · Judge of Vincent of Saragossa
  114. 114 Porphyry of Tyre c. AD 234 – c. 305 Neoplatonist philosopher · Author of Against the Christians
  115. 115 Constantius I Chlorus c. AD 250 – 306 (died at York) Caesar, then Augustus of the West · Father of Constantine
  116. 116 Culcianus, Prefect of Egypt fl. 306 (death unrecorded) Prefect · Judge of Phileas
  117. 117 Severus II d. AD 307 (forced suicide) Tetrarchic Caesar, then Augustus of the West
  118. 118 Maximian Herculius c. AD 250 – 310 (forced suicide) Co-Augustus of Diocletian · Enforcer of the persecution in the West
  119. 119 Emperor Diocletian d. AD 311 (abdicated 305) Roman Emperor (284–305) · Author of the Great Persecution
  120. 120 Emperor Galerius d. AD 311 Roman Emperor (305–311) · Persecutor, then author of toleration
  121. 121 Sossianus Hierocles fl. AD 303–311 (death unrecorded) Governor · Instigator and pamphleteer of the persecution
  122. 122 Emperor Maxentius d. 28 October AD 312 Rival Emperor at Rome (306–312)
  123. 123 Emperor Maximinus Daza d. AD 313 Roman Emperor (Caesar 305, Augustus 310–313) · Persecutor
  124. 124 Domitius Zenophilus consularis of Numidia AD 320 (death unrecorded) Consularis of Numidia · Presiding judge
  125. 125 Sextus of Thamugadi fl. 13 December 320 (death unrecorded) Secretary of the court of Numidia
  126. 126 Emperor Licinius d. AD 325 Roman Emperor of the East (308–324)
  127. 127 Constantine the Great c. 272 – 337 Roman Emperor · Convener of Nicaea
  128. 128 Constantine II AD 316 – 340 (killed at Aquileia) Emperor of the West · Eldest surviving son of Constantine
  129. 129 Emperor Constans AD 323 – 350 (killed in Magnentius's coup) Emperor of the West · Nicene patron
  130. 130 Balacius the Dux d. c. AD 353 (thrown by his horse) Arian military commander of Egypt
  131. 131 Magnentius d. AD 353 (suicide at Lyon) Usurper of the West · Killer of Constans
  132. 132 Gallus Caesar AD 325/326 – 354 (executed) Caesar of the East · Half-brother of Julian
  133. 133 Junius Bassus b. AD 317; d. 25 August 359, aged 42 Praefectus urbi of Rome · Neophyte
  134. 134 Comes Valerius fl. fourth century (dates unrecorded) Comes · Husband of Adelphia
  135. 135 Emperor Constantius II d. 3 November 361 Roman Emperor (337–361) · Arianizing sovereign
  136. 136 George of Laodicea d. c. AD 361 Physician-bishop of Laodicea · Homoiousian strategist
  137. 137 Emperor Julian the Apostate d. 26 June AD 363 Roman Emperor (361–363) · Restorer of paganism
  138. 138 Emperor Jovian AD 331 – 364 (reigned eight months) Emperor · Restorer of the Nicene peace
  139. 139 Atharidus fl. AD 372 (death unrecorded) Son of a Gothic petty king · Persecutor
  140. 140 Maximus of Ephesus c. AD 310 – 372 (executed) Neoplatonist theurgist · Mentor of Julian
  141. 141 Emperor Valentinian I AD 321 – 375 (died of apoplexy at Brigetio) Emperor of the West · Soldier of the tolerant hand
  142. 142 Emperor Valens d. 9 August AD 378 Roman Emperor of the East (364–378) · Arian persecutor
  143. 143 Shapur II AD 309 – 379 (reigned from birth) King of kings of Sasanian Persia · Persecutor
  144. 144 Athanaric iudex of the Goths c. AD 365–381 Iudex of the Thervingian Goths · Persecutor
  145. 145 Emperor Gratian AD 359 – 383 (murdered at Lyon) Emperor of the West · Pupil of Ambrose
  146. 146 Magnus Maximus d. AD 388 (executed at Aquileia) Usurper of the West · Executioner of Priscillian
  147. 147 Themistius c. AD 317 – c. 388 Pagan philosopher-senator · Orator of toleration
  148. 148 Flavius Butheric d. AD 390 (killed in the Thessalonica riot) Magister militum per Illyricum
  149. 149 Emperor Valentinian II AD 371 – 392 (found hanged at Vienne) Boy emperor of the West · Loser of the basilica crisis
  150. 150 Olympius fl. AD 391/392 (death unrecorded) Pagan philosopher · Leader of the defence of the Serapeum
  151. 151 Libanius of Antioch AD 314 – c. 393 Pagan rhetorician · Teacher of Chrysostom · Mourner of the temples
  152. 152 Eugenius d. AD 394 (executed after the Frigidus) Usurper of the West · Figurehead of the pagan revival
  153. 153 Ammianus Marcellinus b. c. AD 325/330, probably Antioch; d. after 391 at Rome Soldier · Historian · Pagan external witness
  154. 154 Emperor Theodosius I d. 17 January 395 Roman Emperor (379–395) · Establisher of Nicene Christianity
  155. 155 Nummius Aemilianus Dexter fl. AD 379–395 (death unrecorded) Praetorian prefect · Son of Pacian of Barcelona
  156. 156 Quintus Aurelius Symmachus b. c. AD 340; urban prefect 384–385; d. c. 402 Urban prefect of Rome · Senator · Orator · Pagan spokesman
  157. 157 Yazdegerd I king of kings of Persia AD 399 – 420 Sasanian shah · Licenser of the Persian church

Every name links to its profile: the dates, the office, and every primary source that carries the name. 119 of these 157 have no Wikipedia article — for them this archive may be the fullest sourced record online.

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